Abstract
This paper focuses on the comprehensive assessment of regional performance in attaining the 2030 Strategic Framework for Education and Training (ET2030) established by the European Union. To this end, we propose a composite indicator framework based on robust Benefit-of-the-doubt models empirically validated through an extensive analysis of data spanning 32 countries and 101 NUTS-I level regions for 2019. We integrate contextual variables into a robust conditional model to ensure an equitable evaluation among regions grappling with distinct circumstances. Specifically, the unemployment rate and the percentage of the population holding national citizenship are considered. Moreover, the research identifies best practices from high-performing regions that can serve as benchmarks for underperforming areas. Analyzing regional-level data is crucial for understanding disparities between European regions and within countries.

Abstract
This paper investigates the relationship between school principals' managerial practices and two key mensions of school performance: students' cognitive outcomes and school climate. School performance assessed using a classical Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) framework, complemented by both unconditional robust and conditional robust models to evaluate the influence of managerial practices on school efficiency. We introduce a methodological innovation that allows for a nuanced analysis of how contextual variables-specifically, principals' managerial practices-affect performance, both individually and through their interactions. The analysis is based on 2019 INVALSI data from a nationally representative sample of 8th grade students in Italian schools. The findings show that principals' practices, as well as the ways in which these practices interact, play a significant role in shaping school efficiency, particularly by promoting a positive supportive school climate.

Abstract
This paper proposes an innovative directional Benefit-of-the-Doubt (BoD) model for setting benchmarking targets on the frontier of the Production Possibility Set (PPS) in alignment with strategic goals defined a priori by experts or decision makers. The proposed model iteratively adjusts the directional vectors assigned to each Decision Making Unit (DMU) ensuring that once specific goals are achieved, further improvement efforts are directed towards indicators with remaining performance gaps. This mechanism enables a dynamic prioritization of improvement consistent with strategic objectives. Additionally, we define a Composite Indicator (CI) that measures the overall effectiveness of each DMU relative to a strategy-based reference. The CI can be decomposed into a technical score - reflecting proximity to the PPS frontier - and a strategical score - capturing the extent to which goals remain unmet upon reaching the frontier. The framework proposed is illustrated and validated through an empirical assessment of 27 European countries using 2022 data from the 'Education and Training 2030' indicators.

Abstract
The Benefit of the Doubt (BoD) is a non-parametric frontier model derived from Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA), used to construct composite indicators in various sectors of economic activity, with a particular focus on macroeconomic assessments. Based on documents published in the Web of Science from 1991 to 2025, we conduct a systematic bibliometric review on this topic, proposing future research directions derived from the bibliographic coverage of the most recurrent concepts, areas, and problems addressed in the current BoD literature. We identify core publication networks for non-parametric frontier composite indicators, highlighting trends, hot topics, and clusters of applications. As a result, we offer three different and comprehensive BoD research agendas based on a practical knowledge discovery exercise from expert knowledge and Large Language Models (LLM), highlighting attractive topics, theoretical contributions, concepts, methods, and potential applications. © 2025 The Author(s)

Abstract
This study presents an innovative approach to assessing service quality in the water supply and wastewater treatment sectors, using directional Benefit-of-the-Doubt (BoD) models tailored to regulator needs. Unlike previous research, this work integrates the regulator preferences throughout the entire evaluation process, from selecting key performance metrics to determining reference weights and validating results through sensitivity analyses. A new index for the Assessment of the Quality of Services (AQS) was constructed using a set of indicators chosen by the regulator, ensuring a direct alignment with regulatory priorities. Additionally, the study examines the relationship between service quality and cost efficiency, the latter computed using the Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) methodology, to address the inherent tension in the water sector between these often conflicting goals. By providing a comprehensive comparison of wholesale utilities' performance, the findings highlight that cost efficiency and service quality do not always align. This underscores the need for a balanced regulatory approach that fosters service quality improvements while maintaining cost control, promoting sustainable and effective management of the sector.