Abstract
This paper proposes an innovative directional Benefit-of-the-Doubt (BoD) model for setting benchmarking targets on the frontier of the Production Possibility Set (PPS) in alignment with strategic goals defined a priori by experts or decision makers. The proposed model iteratively adjusts the directional vectors assigned to each Decision Making Unit (DMU) ensuring that once specific goals are achieved, further improvement efforts are directed towards indicators with remaining performance gaps. This mechanism enables a dynamic prioritization of improvement consistent with strategic objectives. Additionally, we define a Composite Indicator (CI) that measures the overall effectiveness of each DMU relative to a strategy-based reference. The CI can be decomposed into a technical score - reflecting proximity to the PPS frontier - and a strategical score - capturing the extent to which goals remain unmet upon reaching the frontier. The framework proposed is illustrated and validated through an empirical assessment of 27 European countries using 2022 data from the 'Education and Training 2030' indicators.

Abstract
The Benefit of the Doubt (BoD) is a non-parametric frontier model derived from Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA), used to construct composite indicators in various sectors of economic activity, with a particular focus on macroeconomic assessments. Based on documents published in the Web of Science from 1991 to 2025, we conduct a systematic bibliometric review on this topic, proposing future research directions derived from the bibliographic coverage of the most recurrent concepts, areas, and problems addressed in the current BoD literature. We identify core publication networks for non-parametric frontier composite indicators, highlighting trends, hot topics, and clusters of applications. As a result, we offer three different and comprehensive BoD research agendas based on a practical knowledge discovery exercise from expert knowledge and Large Language Models (LLM), highlighting attractive topics, theoretical contributions, concepts, methods, and potential applications. © 2025 The Author(s)